Ewelina Kośmider: What is the best habitat for the moose?

Dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek: The moose does best in a temperate climate with winters not too cold and not too snowy, and summers not too hot. It is home in freshwater swamp forests with lots of water and dense vegetation. Swamps, peat bogs and areas in the vicinity of lakes and rivers offer both food and shelter. Aquatic vegetation constitutes a big part of the moose’s diet; what is more, young trees such as aspens, birches and willows make for a good source of food all year round.

The moose opts for calm and quiet places, away from people, such as nature reserves, national parks and protected areas. Southern and central Scandinavia, north-eastern Poland, for instance, the Biebrza National Park and the Augustów Forest, as well as milder parts of Siberia, Canada and Alaska are good examples of places where the moose can thrive, away from us and with plenty of water and vegetation.

E.K.: Were the environment and lifestyle of the moose in the Pleistocene any different from today?

Dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek: Moose’s lifestyle and habitat in the Pleistocene differ from today’s conditions, although some things remain unchanged. Back in the Pleistocene the moose lived in the harsh and unpredictable climate of the Ice Age, it had to adapt to much more extreme conditions than the ones it lives in today.

The Pleistocene moose inhabited primarily the tundra, taiga and stepotundra zones stretching over vast areas of Eurasia and North America, which had low temperatures and seasonal food availability. The moose had to survive on the scarce food during winter, eating shrubs, lichen, tree branches and bark.

The Pleistocene moose’s lifestyle was more nomadic. It often had to travel long distances to find food and a friendlier habitat, especially during glacial movements. Modern moose, although still seasonally migrating, have more stable habitats to choose from, and because of that do not need to travel as much as their Pleistocene ancestors.

E.K.: There are two varieties of moose species, European and Asian. How do they differ from each other, and what is their range? Have the differences between these varieties existed since the Pleistocene, or did they develop later?

Dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek: We cannot really categorize the moose into two “varieties,” as in subspecies, because this division is not recognized taxonomically. Instead, we often use terms “chromosomal races” and “geographic forms.” Due to morphological, genetic and chromosomal differences that began to form as early as in the Pleistocene and were accelerated by geographical isolation and habitational differences, we divide the moose (Alces alces) into two main geographic forms – European and Asian.

The main differences between these varieties are:

Chromosome number – European and West Siberian moose have 68 chromosomes, while East Asian and North American moose have 70. The border between populations with different numbers of chromosomes runs along the Yenisei River in Siberia.

Morphology – The Asian moose is larger, and its antlers are more massive than those of the European moose. This is due to the harsher climates of Siberia and East Asia. The larger body size helps the Asian moose to keep warm, which is consistent with Bergmann’s rule.

Genetics – Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis has shown greater genetic diversity among the Asian moose. These moose share haplotypes with European and North American moose, suggesting that Asia was the site of the original evolution of the moose. This indicates that the Asian population is more primitive and has retained a larger gene pool.

These differences began to form already in the Pleistocene, which is the effect of geographic isolation and differences in habitational conditions after the latest glaciation. Moose populations that survived in different glacial refugia gradually began to differentiate genetically and morphologically. Isolation caused by geographic barriers such as mountains and rivers, and climate change contributed to the development of two distinct varieties of this species.

Dr hab. Krzysztof Stefaniak, prof. UWr: It is worth emphasizing that the evolution of the moose took a long time, the oldest remains are over 2 million years old. The oldest remains from Poland are from the Lower Pleistocene, so they are over a million years old. The original moose was slightly different from the modern one: it had small shoulder blades and a longer pelvic region. In the Middle Pleistocene, the moose became enormous, its antlers grew up to four meters. It still had a long pelvic region, but even larger shoulder blades. The moose that currently inhabits our terrain did not evolve so long ago, probably about 100 thousand years ago, or a bit earlier. It has large shoulder blades and a small pelvic region.

Interestingly, the moose has settled in North America twice. The first time was in the Middle Pleistocene when the largest species, the so-called broad-fronted moose (Alces Latifrons), crossed the Bering Strait, which was solid land back then, and stayed. There was even a separate species in North America, which died out after the modern moose and humans arrived. There is a theory that the humans caused the extinction of the Native American moose. However, some scientists claim the cause of its extinction was the parasites brought by the modern moose, to which this American species was not resistant. The American moose had a good habitat and survived for a very long time, but eventually became extinct after the modern moose dominated the continent.

E.K.: The moose is one of the last surviving species of the boreal and temperate Eurasian megafauna. How did it manage to survive?

Dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek: The moose survived as one of the last representatives of the Eurasian megafauna thanks to its exceptional ability to adapt and its wide ecological niche. Its flexibility in choosing habitats, from boreal forests to swamps and tundra, allowed it to avoid competition and survive in harsh conditions while other species struggled. A varied diet, including leaves, branches, and aquatic vegetation, allowed the moose to survive even in winter when access to food was limited.

Adult moose had few natural enemies, and its large size and strength effectively deterred predators. Its mobility and ability to migrate allowed it to avoid unfavorable conditions and explore new areas. The moose rarely competed with humans for resources, which reduced the hunting pressure and allowed it to survive, while other megafauna species, more endangered by hunting and environmental changes, became extinct.

Dr hab. Krzysztof Stefaniak, prof. UWr: The moose has a completely different food base than other ungulates, it mainly eats small twigs. It is also taller, so it can reach leaves and twigs located on higher parts of trees. What is more, its biotope is completely different as well. As dr Ratajczak-Skrzatek has already said, it survived thanks to its unique nature: it is adapted to live in uninviting wetlands, inaccessible for other hoofed mammals

E.K.: How has the range of moose changed since the Pleistocene?

Dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek: The range of the moose has changed significantly since the Pleistocene, as it adapted to the changing climate and landscape of Eurasia and North America. In the Pleistocene, the moose was widespread in the tundra, taiga, and stepotundra areas that stretched from Europe to East Asia and North America. These were typical habitats for Ice Age megafauna, where moose, as one of few herbivores, could survive in harsh conditions.

During the glacial maximum, the range of moose was limited to southern areas of Europe, Asia, and North America, where it could find refugia—ice-free areas important for the survival of the species. As the glaciers receded and the climate warmed, the moose gradually moved north, following the expansion of boreal and temperate forests.

During the Holocene, when the climate was stable, the moose occupied most of the forests of northern Eurasia and North America. In Europe, its range included Scandinavia, the Baltic countries, Poland, and Russia, while in Asia it extended from Siberia to Mongolia and northern China. In North America, the moose could be found in Alaska and Canada, gradually migrating south along the Appalachians and Rocky Mountains.

The modern range of the moose is mainly in the boreal forests of the Northern Hemisphere, with populations scattered across Europe, Asia, and North America. Although human activity, habitat fragmentation, and hunting have reduced their range, the moose can still be found in large areas, particularly where forests and wetlands remain undisturbed.

E.K.: The number of moose was at its peak in the late Pleistocene, and began to decline in the Holocene. In Western Europe, the moose became extinct 2,000 years ago, and it was believed that the climate change was the cause. Has your research confirmed this hypothesis?

Dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek: Our research has shown that the decline in the moose population in Western Europe in the Holocene was the result of a combination of factors, among which human activity played a key role, and not – as previously thought – climate change alone. Although climate warming had some impact on moose migrations and their gradual withdrawal from warmer regions in the south and west of the continent, the main factor leading to the decline in population numbers was anthropogenic pressure.

In the late Pleistocene, the moose’s range was wide, almost all of Europe and large areas of Asia. The moose was one of few large herbivores that managed to survive the Ice Age and adapt to changing environmental conditions. After the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the moose gradually moved north into areas free from the ice sheet, and their numbers increased with the spread of boreal and temperate forests. The early Holocene period facilitated the development of moose populations, as climate warming and forest expansion created favorable conditions for the species. However, over time, especially in the last 8–4 thousand years, the level of human activity, agricultural development, and its result, deforestation began to significantly reduce moose’s habitat. The conversion of forests into cropland and pastures led to habitat fragmentation and limited access to food and shelter.

But that is not the only reason for the decrease in moose’s population, with the development of hunting technology and the emergence of more advanced weapons, the moose became an easy target for humans. Moreover, its meat, skin and antlers made it an attractive prey. Intensive hunting, especially in less forested areas, led to local extinctions of the moose population, which was unable to recover in the face of increasing hunting pressure.

Dr hab. Krzysztof Stefaniak, prof. UWr: I would like to add that antlers were a very good raw material and people have been collecting them since the earliest times. We have many sites where there is an accumulation of antlers – presumably these places were workshops where tools, various utility items, or even artifacts related to art or religion were made from them. In the case of such finds, we, of course, contact archaeologists.

The moose was not only an object of hunting, but also, at some point, an object of worship. Various objects that could testify to this have been found at many sites in Europe, for example, decorated antlers. This ceremonial object was found in Pomerania and described in collaboration by me and Professor Tomasz Płonka from the Institute of Archaeology. The number of such finds speaks to the fact that the moose used to be deemed as important.

E.K.: Is the moose able to adapt to new climatic conditions?

Dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek: The moose demonstrates a great ability to adapt, which makes it one of the most flexible representatives of megafauna. Its wide ecological niche and diverse diet allow it to survive in various environments – from the boreal forests of Scandinavia and Siberia to the wetlands of North America. Due to climate warming, the moose is already shifting its range northwards, following the expanding boreal forests and tundra.

However, future adaptation to new climate conditions is not without its challenges. Climate warming results in an increased number of ticks and other parasites that negatively impact moose’s health. Additionally, increasing droughts and reduced availability of wetlands may limit access to food and shelter, making it harder for the moose to survive in more southern parts of their current range.

Despite these threats, it is possible for the moose to adapt by changing migration patterns, exploring new areas, and feeding on more accessible plant species. Nevertheless, to increase the chances of long-term survival of the moose, habitat fragmentation and human pressure should be reduced. Conservation efforts can play a key role in making it possible for the moose to adapt to changing conditions in regions where its habitat is being rapidly transformed.

E.K.: What factors, other than the climate, have contributed to the reduction in moose population range?

Dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek: Apart from the climate change, anthropogenic and ecological factors have had a significant impact on the reduction in the range of the moose population. Human activity is the main problem; intensive deforestation, agricultural development and urbanization led to the loss and fragmentation of habitats. By losing the access to large, intact forests and wetlands, the moose was gradually deprived of key feeding areas and breeding sites.

E.K.: Can the moose migrate to urban areas? I heard a story from a resident of Krzyki that the gate on her property was destroyed by a moose, are such stories just rumors or are they a valid concern?

Dr hab. Krzysztof Stefaniak, prof. UWr: There is a lot of information about moose sightings in the Wrocław area. Young males, in particular, migrate because they want to gain new territory. And since we have a beautiful corridor along the Oder nearby, they can wander through it without any worries.

Dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek: Moose can migrate into cities, especially if their natural habitats are fragmented or transformed by humans. Such cases are becoming more and more frequent in Poland and other countries, where moose populations are growing after years of protection and their range is expanding. In autumn and winter, when moose search for new feeding grounds or migrate, they can end up on the outskirts of cities, and sometimes even in their centers.

Stories about moose entering properties, destroying fences or gates are not just baseless rumors. The moose is a large and strong animal that, when under the influence of stress or trying to get to new areas, can damage obstacles in their path. There are known cases of moose sightings in city parks, housing estates, and even construction sites. In Poland, they have been seen in large cities such as Warsaw and Gdańsk.

Such situations result from the growing number of moose and their search for new shelters. Sometimes, young individuals, looking for new territory, accidentally enter urban areas. Although they are not aggressive towards people, their presence in cities can be dangerous, especially on roads, where they can cause collisions.

Therefore, if a moose appears on the property or in its neighborhood, it is best to remain calm instead of trying to scare it away and notify the appropriate services (e.g., City Guard or Forest District), which can help to safely lead the animal to the forest.

E.K.: What research problems related to moose paleozoology still require exploration?

Dr hab. Krzysztof Stefaniak, prof. UWr: Not all moose sites have been researched enough, so there is still a lot to be explored. In order to trace the European range of moose occurrence, it would be good to create a database covering all sites, which is hindered by the limited access to some collections, especially those from Western Europe, e.g., France. Unfortunately, not all museums are open to the idea of collaboration. What is more, there are few sites from the oldest geological periods, i.e., for example from the Lower Pleistocene. Our site in Jaskinia Żabia has not yet been fully explored, perhaps we will return there this year if we manage to obtain funding – we are currently waiting for the results of the competition. We would like to conduct additional research, because we know that moose remains have been left there.

E.K.: Where is Jaskinia Żabia located?

Dr hab. Krzysztof Stefaniak, prof. UWr: In the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland. We found the remains of one adult and one young specimen there. One of the things we want to know is whether it was a female with a young one. This cave is in the form of a vertical well, probably became a natural trap for these animals. We have a dozen or so remains, consisting of teeth and leg bones, but maybe we could find the whole skeleton.

E.K.: I wish you good luck!

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The publication “Impact of global environmental changes on the range contraction of Eurasian moose since the Late Pleistocene” is the result of a broad international research cooperation, in which scientists from the University of Wrocław played a significant role. The project, carried out under a grant from the National Science Centre (no. UMO-2018/29/B/NZ8/01173), was led by dr Magdalena Niedziałkowska from the Mammal Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Białowieża.

Impact of global environmental changes on the range contraction of Eurasian moose since the Late Pleistocene

Magdalena Niedziałkowska, Marcin Górny, Joanna Gornia, Danijela Popović, Mateusz Baca, Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek, Oleksandr Kovalchuk, Maciej Sykut, Małgorzata Suska-Malawska, Paweł Mackiewicz, Emilia Hofman-Kamińska, Rafał Kowalczyk, Maxim Czarniauski, Kamilla Pawłowska, Daniel Makowiecki, Larisa Tataurova, Alexey Bondarev, Andrey Shpansky, Albert V. Protopopov, Aleksandr Dmitrievich Sorokin, Urmas Saarma, Pavel Kosintsev, Ulrich Schmölcke, Jarosław Wilczyński, Grzegorz Lipecki, Adam Nadachowski, Gennady G. Boeskorov, Gennady F. Baryshnikov, Roberto Zorzin, Nadezhda Vorobiova, Nina S. Moskvitina, Sergey Leshchinskiy, Dmitriy Malikov, Ivan M. Berdnikov, Adrian Balasescu, Adina Boroneant, Alexey Klementiev, Ralph Fyfe, Jessie Woodbridge, Krzysztof Stefaniak (2024) Science of The Total Environment, 957: 177235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.177235

(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724073923)

The research was carried out by outstanding scientists from various academic and research institutions, which emphasizes its interdisciplinary nature. The co-authors of the work include dr hab. Krzysztof Stefaniak, prof. UWr (Department of Paleozoology, Faculty of Biological Sciences), prof. dr hab. Paweł Mackiewicz (Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics, Faculty of Biotechnology), dr hab. Oleksandr Kovalchuk (Department of Paleozoology, Faculty of Biological Sciences) and dr Urszula Ratajczak-Skrzatek (Department of Paleozoology, Faculty of Biological Sciences) from the University of Wrocław, who made a valuable contribution to the collection and analysis of paleontological and genetic material used in this project. This publication is an example of fruitful cooperation between scientists from Poland, Belarus, Estonia, Russia, Germany, the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Romania, Italy, and the United Kingdom, which demonstrates the significant importance of international cooperation in research on climate change and its impact on Eurasian megafauna. The collection of data covering a wide temporal and spatial range allowed for the creation of a comprehensive analysis of changes in the range of moose occurrence from the late Pleistocene to the present. This large ungulate inhabits the boreal and temperate climate zones of the Northern Hemisphere and is adapted to live in a cold climate. The range of this species was greatest at the beginning of the Holocene, and then began to shrink with the warming climate.

Modern and advanced research methods, such as AMS radiocarbon dating, ecological niche modeling and fossil DNA analysis, have enabled an in-depth understanding of the processes leading to the reduction of the range of moose in Europe and Asia. The research results show that although climate change has affected the distribution of this species on a biogeographic scale, human activity – deforestation, development of agriculture and intensive hunting – was crucial for the extinction of moose populations in Western Europe.

The publication is a significant contribution to research on paleoecology and nature conservation and the impact of climate change on changes in the range of large ungulates, and may also be an inspiration for future research on the impact of global environmental changes on species adapted to a cold climate. The active participation of researchers from the University of Wrocław in this international undertaking proves the high level of research conducted and the growing importance of Polish scientists on the global stage.

Translated by Weronika Kucharska (student of English Studies at the University of Wrocław) as part of the translation practice.